Criteria for 2002 Language Arts Adoption

Since 1997, California has adopted critical elements of a comprehensive system for reading and language arts. This system includes State Board of Education approved content standards, a framework, and a statewide assessment system. The English-Language Arts Content Standards for California Public Schools and the Reading/Language Arts Framework for California Public Schools provide the basic foundation for the design of instructional materials. All students, including students with special needs, will be tested on mastery of the English-language arts content standards in the statewide testing program. The testing program includes STAR (SAT9 and Standards Based Test), a high school exit exam (in development) and an English Language Development Test (in development). All students will be required to take the first two exams, and English learners will be required, in addition, to take the English Language Development Test.

All students must have equal opportunities to master these standards and equal opportunities to perform well on the assessments. California is moving toward a system where instructional materials are designed to ensure that: 1) virtually every student participates in the regular classroom and has access to the basic curriculum; and 2) teachers are provided with the support they need to ensure that all students succeed.

The diversity of California's student population demands a unique design for instructional materials. All students should fully participate in a basic reading/language arts program of one to two and one half hours in length, utilizing comprehensive instructional materials that address all of the language arts content standards for each grade level in a coherent fashion. The instructional materials should thoughtfully and logically address the development of skills and knowledge within the strands that build through the grade levels. Instructional materials that are designed in this way will be a key element in ensuring that students are prepared to pass the required assessments.

The basic reading/language arts program should utilize instructional materials that are designed to foster universal access, which means access for all students. These materials would include specific suggestions, in the teacher's edition, for providing universal access to the curriculum as well as standards-based extensions of the curriculum for advanced students. Instructional materials should describe specific ways for the teacher to address the learning needs of all students and thereby ensure access for all students to the basic grade-level materials and instruction. Instructional materials for the basic reading/language arts program should be developed for the following minimal daily time periods: one hour at kindergarten; two and a half hours at grades one through three; two hours at the upper elementary grades (grades four through five or six); and at least one and up to two hours at the intermediate grades (grades six or seven and eight).

In addition to the basic program, some students will need extra assistance to successfully complete grade-level content. All publishers are asked to provide additional instructional materials for special populations of students. The purpose of these additions to the program is to ensure that students will participate successfully in the basic reading/language arts program and will achieve mastery of the English-language arts standards. These materials would include 1) teacher and pupil editions of English language development support materials for English learners of approximately 30 to 45 minutes each day to be used in addition and connected to the basic instruction in the regular classroom; 2) teacher and pupil editions of special education support materials for special education pupils of approximately 30 to 45 minutes each day to be used in addition and connected to the basic instruction in the regular classroom.

Publishers are also encouraged to provide instructional materials for three special populations of students (students in grades four through eight whose reading achievement is significantly below grade level, English learners in grades four through eight who are at the beginning through intermediate levels of English proficiency, and students studying in languages other than English) as described in the box below. Required and optional program components are noted below. By providing teachers with the tools to organize instruction around the needs of learners and supplying teachers with the appropriate instructional materials their students need, California can maximize the chances that each student will have the opportunity to learn the skills and knowledge embodied in the standards.

This document provides criteria for evaluating reading/language arts instructional materials in five categories: (1) alignment with the content in the English-Language Arts Content Standards; (2) program organization; (3) assessment; (4) universal access; (5) instructional planning and support. Instructional materials in reading language arts must support teaching that is aligned with the standards and the framework. Materials that fail to meet the content criteria in category 1 will not be considered satisfactory for adoption. Within category 4, universal access, some criteria are optional and some are required. The criteria in categories 2 through 5 will be considered holistically. In addition to the five categories, all instructional materials must meet all applicable requirements contained in codes and regulations, including Education Code sections 60040, 60041, 60042, and 60044, and applicable sections of the Title 5 Regulations.

Required components

All publishers must design basic reading/language arts instructional materials that incorporate principles of universal access for the following minimal daily time periods:

• 1 hour in kindergarten
• 2.5 hours in grades 1-3
• 2 hours in grades 4-5/6
• 1, 1.5 or 2 hours in grades 6/7-8

In addition, all publishers must design two additional supporting components that reinforce and extend the basic program:

• 30-45 minutes for English learners
• 30-45 minutes for special education pupils

Optional programs

• Publishers may choose to provide a comprehensive, intensive, accelerated reading/language arts program designed for students in grades four through eight whose reading achievement is significantly below grade level.
• Publishers may choose to develop a comprehensive language arts program designed specifically for English learners in grades four through eight whose proficiency in English is at the beginning through intermediate levels. These programs would be designed to accelerate the learning of English and would address all of the English-language arts content standards by grade level.
• Publishers may choose to provide a language arts program in languages other than English for those students on waiver, provided those programs are comprehensive, systematic, and are designed to transition students successfully to English. These programs must be consistent with the content of the Reading/Language Arts Framework.

Criteria Category 1: Alignment with English-Language Arts Content Standards

• Instructional materials as defined in Education Code Section 60010 (h) provide instruction designed to ensure that students master each of the English-Language Arts Content Standards.
• Instructional materials reflect and incorporate the content of the Reading/Language Arts Framework.
• Instruction reflects current and confirmed research in reading/language arts instruction.
• Standards that require extensive teaching and are clear prerequisites for later standards are afforded sufficient instructional time.
• Careful attention is given in the early grades, and in the optional intensive reading/language arts programs, to the standards for early reading and the importance of the alphabetic writing system.
• The basic reading/language arts curriculum in kindergarten through grade three provides explicit, sequential, logical, systematic instruction and diagnostic support in:
• Phonemic awareness (through grade one)
• Phonics
• Decoding
• Word-attack skills
• Spelling
• Vocabulary
• Comprehension skills
• Writing skills and strategies and their application
• Written and oral English language conventions
• Listening and speaking skills and strategies and their application
• In phonics instruction, all the sound spelling correspondences are taught in a sequential and logical design.
• The basic reading/language arts curriculum for grades four through eight provides explicit, systematic, sequential, logical instruction and diagnostic support in:
• Word-attack skills (e.g., decoding and structural as applied to multi-syllabic words)
• Spelling
• Vocabulary
• Comprehension skills, including contextual skills
• Text-handling and strategic reading skills
• Writing skills and strategies and their applications to a variety of purposes, as specified in the content standards
• Written and oral English language conventions
• Listening and speaking skills and strategies and their application
• Content must be written in a manner that is grammatically correct.
• Sufficient pre-decodable and decodable texts are included at the early stages to allow students to develop automaticity and practice fluency. Those materials designated by the publisher as decodable must have at least 75% of the words comprised solely of previously taught sound-spelling correspondences, and from 15% to 20% of the words comprised of previously taught high frequency words and story words. High frequency words introduced in pre-decodable and decodable texts are taken from a list of the most commonly used words in English, prioritized by their utility. Sufficient is defined as the following:
• Kindergarten - at least 15 pre-decodable books (pre-decodable is defined as small books used to teach simple, beginning, high frequency words usually coupled with rebus)
• Kindergarten - approximately 20 decodable books, integrated with the sequence of instruction
• First grade - Two books per sound-spelling totaling a minimum of 8,000 words of decodable text over the course of a year
• Second grade - approximately 9,000 words of decodable text, two decodable books per sound sound-spelling determined by the instructional sequence of letter-sound correspondence for students who still need this instruction
• Each decodable text contains a list at the back of all the sight words and sound-spelling correspondences introduced in that book, as well as those previously taught in the series.
• A list of books for independent reading that spans at least three grade levels and matches the topics of the units are included.
• Reading selections, including those read to students and those students read, are of high quality, interesting, motivational, multicultural, and age-appropriate for students.
• Reading materials used for in-class work and homework as students progress through the grades are suggested or included to ensure that students read the amount of text specified in the standards at various grade levels.
• Teacher's editions suggest reading material for students to read, outside of class, at least 20 minutes a day in grade one and 30 minutes a day in grades two and beyond.
• High-quality literature is an integral part of language arts instruction at every grade level.
• Informational text to support standards in reading comprehension and writing applications is included for all grades. When included, informational text addressing topics in history-social science, science, and mathematics topics is accurate and consistent with grade-level standards.
• Writing in response to text is an integral part of instruction at all appropriate grade levels. Instruction in writing strategies and applications progresses in breadth, depth, and sophistication as specified in each grade-level writing standard.
• Instructional materials follow the specific types of writing required in the content standards at each grade level. In addition to the traditional narrative forms, materials will include instruction in the following types of writing: research reports, persuasive compositions, as well as technical and career-related documents as defined by the grade level standards.
• Instructional content reflects the reciprocal and related processes of reading, writing conventions, and listening and speaking. The content integrates standards across domains and standards within language arts and across core academic disciplines of history-social science and science, as well as other content areas where appropriate.
• Instructional resources provide strategies for teachers and materials for developing academic language (i.e. the more difficult, abstract, technical and specialized vocabulary and concepts used in texts and tests).
• Instructional materials provide assignments designed to have students listen to, read, speak and write academic language.
• All instructional materials are an integral part of the grade level content for reading/language arts. Extraneous materials not aligned to the standards are minimal in number and must not detract from the students' mastery of English-language arts standards.

Criteria Category 2: Program Organization

• Scope and sequence align with English - Language Arts Content Standards and strands, although within each grade level the standards and the strands do not have to be addressed in the order in which they appear in the standards.
• Reading/language arts instructional materials are designed for the following minimal daily time periods for the regular instructional program:
• 1 hour in kindergarten
• 2.5 hours in grades 1-3
• 2 hours in grades 4-5/6
• 1 to 2 hours in grades 6/7-8
• In addition, all publishers are asked to provide ELD support materials for 30-45 minutes daily, and special education support materials for 30-45 minutes daily leading to mastery of English-language arts content standards and success within the basic program.
• In order to protect language arts instructional time, those K-3 content standards in history-social science and science that lend themselves to instruction during the language arts time period are addressed within the language arts materials, particularly in the selection of expository texts that are read to students, or that students read.
• Instructional design reflects a coherent and linguistically logical sequence of instruction.
• Instructional materials may group related standards and address them simultaneously for purposes of coherence and utility.
• The introduction and sequencing of topics is progressive, continuous and arranged for an optimal rate of learning and appropriate pacing.
• The instructional design enhances students' retention and generalization of what is learned.
• More time and emphasis is afforded major encompassing ideas.
• Students are taught skills and given activities to practice skills, including opportunities to connect and apply those skills.
• Dimensions of complex tasks are analyzed and broken down into component parts; each part is taught in a logical progression.
• Specific objectives are identified and sequenced.
• Content increases in difficulty: prerequisite skills are taught before more sophisticated ones; prerequisite skills are mastered prior to advanced application.
• Materials and assessment include a cumulative and/ or spiraled review of skills.
• Individual and group learner proficiencies are used to make determination about additional instruction (review, re-teaching, or accelerating the pace).
• Similar and confusing content and strategies are separated.
• The amount of new information is controlled and connected to prior learning, and students are explicitly assisted to make connections.
• Teacher communication to students is clear, using vocabulary and language structures that students understand.
• Materials rule out likely misinterpretations, identify and correct common misconceptions held by students, and provide teachers with suggestions of how to correct those misconceptions.
• Instructional materials include directions for:
• Direct teaching
• Demonstration
• Teacher modeling
• Guided and independent practice and application
• Appropriate pacing of lessons
• Pre-teaching and re-teaching as needed
• Instructional materials include adequate practice and review (sufficient review, distributed review, cumulative review, varied review).
• Instructional materials provide extra practice for students who need it.
• Instructional materials are standards based and include acceleration or enrichment materials, various assignments, and/or suggestions for advanced learners.

• Assessments measure the understanding and application of skills and knowledge embedded in the instructional program.
• Assessments measure standards in several formats for immediate follow-up to instruction, for practice, and for review in order to keep teachers informed on how well students have mastered the standards.
• Assessments help teachers determine the effectiveness of their instruction by:
• Conducting assessments at strategic points of instruction (entry level, monitoring of progress and summative) as suggested on pages 218 and 220 in the Reading/Language Arts Framework
• Monitoring student progress at the end of each unit of instruction
• Determining instructional program activity options (e.g. review, preteach or reteach, provide additional practice, maintain or accelerate pacing, provide intensive intervention)
• Assessments vary in administration (group and individual) and in types of tasks (e.g. multiple choice, short answer, essay, and oral presentation).
• Materials offer guidance on the importance of uses and interpretations for at least two kinds of assessment: (1) those embedded in the instructional program; and (2) those norm-referenced to comparison groups of students.

Criteria Category 4: Universal Access

Introduction

The goal of reading/language arts programs in California is to ensure access to high-quality curriculum and instruction for all students and teachers so they can meet or exceed the state's English-language arts content standards. To reach that goal, teachers must be provided with instructional materials that will provide them with the necessary content and pedagogical tools to teach students to master the standards. Teachers need assistance in using assessments for planning programs, differentiating curriculum and instruction, determining effective grouping strategies, and implementing other strategies for meeting the needs of students with reading difficulties, special education students, advanced learners, English learners, and students with a combination of these needs. The basic reading/language arts materials must encompass a range of materials for teacher and pupil editions sufficient to meet the needs of students at various benchmarks and strategic levels of intervention.

Instructional materials present comprehensive guidance for teachers in providing effective, efficient instruction for all students. Instructional materials must be constructed to meet the needs of those who enter school above, at, or one or more grade levels below the content standards, and therefore are adaptable to each student’s point of entry. Such differentiated instruction will always need to be focused on the standards. All suggestions and procedures for meeting the instructional needs of students are not to be added as superficial afterthoughts to the main focus of instruction. Rather, the instructional materials need to be constructed so that the teacher is not expected to create extensive modifications in order to meet the learning needs of a full range of students.

This category covers criteria for universal access of all instructional materials; however, publishers should give special attention to materials developed for four specific groups outlined in this section: special education; students in grades four through eight who are significantly below grade level in reading; advanced learners; and English learners (EL).

The following design principles are guidelines for publishers to use in creating materials that will allow access for all students.

Design Principles for Perceptual Alternatives

• Consistent with federal copyright law, provide all student text in digital format so that it can easily be transcribed, reproduced, modified, and distributed in braille, large print, recordings, American Sign Language videos for the deaf, or other specialized accessible media exclusively for use by pupils with visual disabilities or other disabilities that prevent use of standard materials.
• Provide written captions and/or written descriptions in digital format for audio portions of visual instructional materials, such as videotapes (for those students who are deaf or hearing impaired).
• Provide educationally relevant descriptions for those images, graphic devices, or pictorial information essential to the teaching of key concepts. (When key information is presented solely in graphic or pictorial form, it limits access for students who are blind or who have low vision. Digital images with verbal description provide access for those individuals and also provide flexibility for instructional emphasis, clarity, and direction.)

Design Principles for Cognitive Alternatives

• Use "considerate text" design principles which include:
• Adequate titles for each selection
• Introductory subheadings for chapter sections
• Introductory paragraphs
• Concluding or summary paragraphs
• Complete paragraphs including clear topic sentence, relevant support, and transitional words and expressions (e.g., furthermore, similarly)
• Effective use of typographical aids - boldface print, italics
• Adequate, relevant visual aids connected to the print: illustrations, photos, graphs, charts, maps
• Manageable versus overwhelming visual and print stimuli
• Identification and highlighting of important terms
• List of reading objectives or focus questions at the beginning of each selection
• List of follow-up comprehension and application questions
• Provide optional information or activities to enhance students' background knowledge. (Some students face barriers because they lack the necessary background knowledge. Pre-testing prior to an activity will alert teachers to the need for advanced preparation. Instructional materials can include optional supports for background knowledge, to be used by students who need them.)
• Provide cognitive supports for content and activities: a) provide assessment to determine background knowledge; b) summarize those key concepts from the standards that the content addresses; c) provide scaffolding for learning and generalization; d) build fluency through practice.

• Explain in the teacher's edition that there is a variety of ways for students with special needs to use the materials and demonstrate their competence, e.g. for students who have dyslexia or who have difficulties physically forming letters, writing legibly, or spelling words. Suggest in the teacher's edition modifications that teachers could use to allow students to access the materials and demonstrate their competence. Examples of modifications of means of expression might include (but are not limited to) student use of computers to complete pencil and paper tasks, use of on-screen scanning keyboards, enlarged keyboards, word prediction, and spellcheckers.
• Publishers should provide support materials that will give students opportunities to develop oral and written expression.

• Instructional materials should present comprehensive guidance for teachers in providing effective, efficient instruction for special needs students. Instructional materials for special needs students must be standards-aligned, assessment-based, instructional programs leading to mastery of all the language arts content standards. These comprehensive programs must include support materials. These are intervention instructional materials that can be used to ensure that students will be successful in the basic curriculum. These resources can be delivered by the classroom or specialist teacher.
• There must be sufficient instructional materials for increased instructional time. For students in grades K-3, materials include a minimum of 30 additional minutes of instruction daily and in grades four to eight, a minimum of 40 additional minutes. These additional instructional materials tie specifically to, reinforce, and extend the regular classroom instruction, and:
• Provide additional opportunities for teachers to check for understanding.
• Increase background knowledge and prerequisite skills and concepts.
• Provide additional vocabulary development opportunities.
• Provide additional practice.
• Assist students in organizing and sorting tasks within assignments.
• Re-teach previously taught material.
• Pre-teach material which will be covered the next day.
• Vary the pacing - accelerating two years into one - moving as quickly as possible.
• Scaffold instruction (for example, if students are studying plot, provide three levels of difficulty in the reading materials students will use to study plot).
• If books on tape are used, provide discussion on features of the text, key concepts, etc., either for class discussion or on the tape.
• Provide explicit instruction in the physical presentation of text and/or text structure in order to facilitate reading comprehension (for example, explain to students what logic underlies the use of italics, bold, underlining, font changes and/or color).
• Allow additional opportunities for student expression and participation.

• There are two purposes of reading/language arts instruction for students in grades four and above who are, for whatever reason, significantly below grade level in reading achievement: 1) the students must be taught to read; and 2) the students must be taught those grade level standards they have not previously mastered. These are assessment-based, comprehensive programs. Programs for these students must include intensive intervention designed to accelerate student access to the basic reading/language arts program and mastery of grade level standards.
• These materials must:
• Provide for intensive, accelerated, comprehensive intervention for students who are significantly below grade level in reading instruction, designed to move them as quickly as possible to grade level achievement in reading
• Provide explicit and systematic instruction in phonemic awareness, word attack skills including decoding, phonics, comprehension, vocabulary development, and additional practice materials
• Include a comprehensive diagnostic assessment which determines student's placement into the program, as well as frequent and comprehensive curriculum-embedded assessment of student progress in skill development.
• Provide a range within the instructional materials which allows flexibility to start students at the beginning, or wherever they need to be, according to appropriate assessment data.
• Suggest appropriate grouping based on students' needs.
• Scaffold instruction (for example, if students are studying plot, provide three levels of difficulty in the reading materials students will use to study plot - please refer to Reading/Language Arts Framework for information regarding scaffolding).
• Provide explicit instruction in the physical presentation of text and/or text structure in order to facilitate reading comprehension. For example, explain to students what logic underlies the use of italics, bold, underlining, font changes and/or color.
• Allow additional opportunities for student expression and participation.

(c) Design Principles for Advanced Learners (to be included within basic materials)

• Teacher and student editions include suggestions or materials for advanced learners who need an enriched or accelerated program or assignments.
• Materials provide suggestions to help students study a particular author, theme, or concept in more depth and conduct a more complex analysis with attention to additional independent readings.
• Materials remind teachers of standards at higher-grade levels to help teachers provide a challenge for all students.

(d) English Learners (EL) - criteria for 30-45 minutes of additional instructional materials

• Materials help teachers teach English learners to master the English-Language Arts Content Standards--notably, to read, write, comprehend and speak at personally and academically proficient levels.
• Lessons address the various English language proficiency levels of English learners as determined by the state-approved English Language Development Test (in development).
• For English learners in grades four through eight who are at the intermediate through early advanced levels of English proficiency and for all English learners in grades K-3, materials include a minimum of 30 additional minutes of English language development instruction daily that is systematically connected to the basic reading/language arts program. The materials are designed to enable students to be successful in the basic reading/language arts program. The materials provide additional support in areas in which students are likely to have difficulty—primarily the following strands and substrands of the English-language arts standards:
• Academic language
• Vocabulary and concept development
• Sentence structure
• Grammar
• Phonologically-based spelling
• Listening and speaking comprehension
• Organization and delivery of oral communication
• Speaking applications
• Publishers provide a chart in the teachers' edition showing how new or difficult sounds and features of the English language are taught and reinforced. Comparisons with the five or more most common languages in California will be incorporated as appropriate.
• The additional instructional materials include appropriate timed segments that address the following instructional components:
• Checking for understanding
• Pre-teaching for upcoming lessons
• Re-teaching previous material
• Scaffolding
• Extra, targeted practice
• Opportunities for students to practice producing language
• Publishers provide specific direction in the teachers' edition regarding the use of instructional materials that support and develop key concepts. Instructional materials include, when appropriate, picture cards with words, transparencies, charts and computer software, as well as suggestions for realia that are easily accessible to the teacher.

(e) Intensive instruction for students in grades four and above who are at the beginning through intermediate levels of English proficiency and who may have little prior schooling or limited literacy (estimated 2 to 3 hour comprehensive program). Publishers may, but are not required to, provide this program. Publishers may submit such a program as a "stand-alone."

• Publishers may develop, for students in grades four through eight whose proficiency in English is at the beginning through intermediate levels, an intensive, comprehensive reading/language arts program addressing literacy and language development. The materials incorporate the elements for English language development described above and are designed so that the intensive, accelerated, and extensive English-language development complements and supports literacy instruction.

(f) Comprehensive reading/language arts materials in languages other than English

• As an option, publishers may develop comprehensive programs of reading/language arts in the key languages of the state for those students on waiver as defined by Proposition 227. Primary language programs parallel English-language arts programs and are aligned with the English-language arts content standards and the Reading/Language Arts Framework for California Public Schools with appropriate modifications for the primary language. Primary language programs are designed to transition students to English and must include all the same components as English-language arts programs.
• English language development materials must also accompany primary language materials for English learners. These ELD materials help develop language and allow the primary language skills learned to be applied in English with additional teaching of skills unique to the language.

Criteria Category 5: Instructional Planning and Support

(See pages 8 and 9 of Reading/Language Arts Framework for the Key to Curricular and Instructional Profiles. In addition, see profiles within the section of each grade level)

Teacher editions should include the following:

• Instructional materials provide a clear road map for teachers to follow when planning instruction.
• Instructional materials include a teacher planning guide describing how to use all the components of the program, which components are essential, and which are optional, in order to meet all the English-language arts standards and the relationships between the components.
• Publishers provide teachers with instructional examples and practice opportunities for students as the students develop in the sophistication of writing.
• The teacher's edition describes: what to teach, how to teach and when to teach.
• Learning objectives and instruction are explicit and the relationship of lessons to standards or skills within standards is explicit.
• Lesson plans, and the relationships of parts of the lesson, are clear.
• Critical components of lessons are prioritized.
• Terms from standards are used appropriately in the instructions.
• Each lesson includes a list of necessary materials.
• All assessment, instructional tools and informational technology resources include technical support and suggestions for appropriate use of technology.
• Electronic learning resources, when included, are integral parts of the program.
• The teacher resource materials provide background information about each reading selection, including author, context, content, and information about illustrations, if any.
• Materials include instructions for the teacher on salient features of the reading material and suggestions on how to use each reading selection in the lesson or lessons.
• Materials include specific guidance for teachers on how to use texts at different levels to increase reading fluency.
• Instructional practices recommended in the instructional materials are based on current and confirmed research wherever such research exists.
• Materials discuss and address common misconceptions held by students.
• Materials suggest grouping strategies appropriate to the instructional objectives.
• Homework extends and reinforces classroom instruction, and provides additional practice of skills that have been taught.
• Materials include suggestions on how to explain students’ progress towards standards.
• Materials include suggestions for parents on how to support student achievement.
• Format makes it easy to distinguish instructions for teachers from those for students.
• Pre-teaching, re-teaching, extension and acceleration activities are clearly labeled.
• Answer keys are provided for all workbooks and other related student activities.
• Publishers provide charts of time and cost of staff development services available for preparing teachers to fully implement the basic reading/language arts program.

Partial list of references:

California Department of Education, Reading/Language Arts Framework for California Public Schools, 1999

California Department of Education, English-Language Arts Content Standards, 1997

Kinsella, Kate, "Considerate Text Principles," Presentation to California Curriculum Development and Supplemental Materials Commission, May, 1998

National Center to Improve Tools of Educators (NCITE); http://idea.oregon.edu/~ ncite/

Orkwis, Raymond and McLane, Kathleen, A Curriculum Every Student Can Use: Design Principles for Student Access, The ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education, The Council for Exceptional Children, 1998.

California Special Education Reading Task Force and California Department of Education, The California Reading Initiative and Special Education in California: Critical Ideas to Focus Meaningful Reform, 1999

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